Documents

This page (named “Downloads” until March 2017) lists all the files available on this web site, including those referred to, and linked from, other pages on this site. Many of the academic and research papers are by members of this association and we publish them with pride, in the memory of Clarence Bicknell whose greatest interest was sharing information rather than hoarding it. All material is Copyright © 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Clarence Bicknell Association and Marcus Bicknell or the author’s. All rights reserved but permission willingly given on request. Versions purchased from 3rd parties on the internet are unlikely to be the latest version and have not been authorised.

As at 7th June 2021, the web-site having been converted from Joomla to WordPress, the links below had to be rebuilt. Please email info@clarencebicknell.com if you cannot find a file.

Alphabetic by surname except Clarence Bicknell himself. To make your visual search easier, some documents are listed more than once.

Click on a title to download…  
  
100 anni di Clarence Bicknell (in Italiano) Alpidoc2019 – Bruno Gallino
Barry, Sir Claude Francis; British master painter in Bordighera2022 – Marcus Bicknell
Béguinot, Augusto, on Clarence Bicknell (1931)2015 – Graham Avery
Belgium’s Botanic Garden and Clarence Bicknell2016 – Graham Avery
Berry, Edward (in Italiano)2020 – Gisella Merello  *HD
Berry, Edward – Letter to Emile Burnat 24 July 19181918 – Edward Berry (on the death of Clarence)
Berry, Grosvenor – in Much Hadham with Ada and Clarence2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Berry, Margaret – Fontanalba Diary1906 – Margaret Berry, transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Berry, Margaret & Edward2013 – Marcus Bicknell
Berry, Margaret – Fontanalba Letters to Mrs Fanshawe-Walker 19012015 – transcribed by Valerie Lester
Bicknell, Algernon Sidney – memoir at The Keep (1910)1910 – Algernon Sidney Bicknell, transcribed 2015
Bicknell, Algernon Sidney – The Bicknells of Barcombe2015 – Martyn Webster
Bicknell, Elhanan – Art collection details2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Elhanan – attitude to Clarence – fictional sketch2017 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Elhanan – Turner Collector2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Elhanan – Turner Collector – slides for 20 Nov 20192019 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Elhanan – at Herne Hill2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Elhanan – Oil Merchant and Shipowner2016 – Mark Howard. Also at Academia.edu
Bicknell, Elhanan – Dictionary of National Biography1988 – Selby Whittingham
Bicknell, Elhanan – The Turner Collector in pdf1987 – Peter Bicknell with Helen Guiterman
Bicknell, Elhanan – Will2014 – transcribed by Transcription Services Ltd
Bicknell, Lucinda – her likeness2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Bicknell, Algernon Sidney – The Bicknells of Barcombe2015 – Martyn Webster
Bicknells of Herne Hill, The1986 – Patricia M. Jenkyns
Bicknell, Sidney Algernon – Science in the archive at The Keep2016 – Emma Johnson
Bristol Botanists at the Casa Fontanalba2017 – Graham Avery
Bordighera – L’atmosfera cosmopolita a fine Ottocento2019 – Gisella Merello
Bordighera British Cemetery – list of 84 British buried there (in Excel)2018 – from cemetery archives
Bordighera Lawn Tennis Club, Bordighera – in italiano2022 – Gisella Merello
Botanistes au Sommet – 2018 exhibition in Nice2018 – Marcus Bicknell
Botanists in the Book of Guests in Esperanto2022 – Graham Avery
British Royal Family in Bordighera, Strathmore, Queen Mother &c.2019 – Gisella Merello, translated by Marcus Bicknell. Also in Italian
Burnat, Émile – “Cher Monsieur”, Letters from Clarence (1886-1917)2016 – Graham Avery
Burnat, Émile -The Film2018 – Graham Avery
Burnat/Bicknell Nature Reserve in the Marguareis Natural Park2017 – Graham Avery
Butterflies, Bicknell and Art Nouveau2020 – Elena Grafova, Likhatchev Research Institute, Moscow
Campbell, Alice – who was Alice Campbell?2017 – Marcus Bicknell
Carestia, Abbot – letters from Clarence Bicknell (1903)2014 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Carestia, Abbot – letters from Clarence Bicknell (1903) in italiano2014 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Cartailhac, Émile, and Bicknell – Antiquités Nationales 382007 – Pierre Machu
Cartailhac, Émile – Letters from Clarence Bicknell2014 – transcribed by Pierre Machu
Casa Fontanalba Visitors Book 1906 – Excel spreadsheet2005 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Casa Fontanalba Visitors Book 1906 – info 3 languages – pdf2015 – to accompany printed book
Casa Fontanalba, Book of Guests in Esperanto. Text.2021 – Marcus Bicknell, Michela Lipari, Humphrey Tonkin
Chiesa di All Saints a Bordighera – in italiano2022 – Gisella Merello
Chippindale, Christopher – MARVELS book review in Antiquity2019 – Christopher Chippindale
Churchman, James2013 – Wendy Wales Newton
Cima Bicknell – origin of the naming of1908 – Fritz Mader, Rivista Mensile, Club Alpino Italiano
Cimitero acattolico e Sacrario militare del Commonwealth, Bordighera – in italiano  2022 – Gisella Merello
Cimitero Monumentale della Foce, Sanremo – in italiano 2023 – Gisella Merello
Clarence Bicknell – 100 anni (in Italiano)2019 – Bruno Gallino
Clarence Bicknell – All Saints Church Bordighera archives2017 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – All Saints Church Bordighera archive photos2017 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Art2016 – Susie Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Baroness von Taube letters pdf or Excel2016 – transcribed by Susie and Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Belgium’s Botanic Garden2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Béguinot, Augusto, biography by, (1931)2015 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Botanical Exchanges2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Citizen Scientist and Botanist2019 – Prof. Mauro Mariotti
Clarence Bicknell – Botany and the Hanbury Gardens2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Bristol Botanists at the Casa Fontanalba2017 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Burnat, Émile, letters from Clarence2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Carestia, Abbot – letters (1903)2014 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Cartailhac, Émile. Antiquités Nationales 382007 – Pierre Machu
Clarence Bicknell – Cartailhac, Émile. Letters2014 – transcribed by Pierre Machu
Clarence Bicknell – Centenary Year 2018, in italiano2018 – Daniela Gandolfi
Clarence Bicknell – Centenary. Article in Riviera Insider2018 – Nicole Ruskell
Clarence Bicknell – Ceylon visit, Marvels chapter 12 excerpts2018 – Valerie Lester
Clarence Bicknell – Chronology of his life and works2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Churchman, James2013 – Wendy Wales Newton
Clarence Bicknell – Classification Techniques2016 – Catherine Delano Smith
Clarence Bicknell – Corbet, Rowland William2015 – Valerie Browne Lester
Clarence Bicknell – Creation of the Casa Fontanalba (c.1915)1915 – Clarence Bicknell, transcribed Valerie Lester 2015
Clarence Bicknell – Cypripedium calceolus2019 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Diary: Stoke-upon-Tern/Bordighera (1878-1879)1879 – Clarence Bicknell, transcribed Libby Peachey 1998
Clarence Bicknell – Diary: Nile Cruise (1889-1890)1890 – Clarence Bicknell, transcribed M Bicknell, V Lester 2017
Clarence Bicknell – Dictionary of National Biography2004 – Desmond Hawkins
Clarence Bicknell – dogs in his life2020 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – folklore notebook1910 c. – excerpts from Clarence’s notebook
Clarence Bicknell – Fritz Mader, ‘Egregio Signore’2020 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Entre paysage et botanique2019 – Raffaella Bruzzone, Robert Hearn & Pietro Piana
Clarence Bicknell – Esperanto Hymnary.org. Short bio of Clarence2013 – anon
Clarence Bicknell – Esperanto, a means to understanding2016 – Marcus Bicknell for the British Library blog
Clarence Bicknell – Essentially Victorian (9 page biography)1988 – Peter Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Farrer, Reginald (1910)2022 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Ferguson, John, letter from Bicknell (1911)2014 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Filantrope ed Esperantista – in italiano2013 – Humphrey Tonkin, Revuo de Itala Esperanto-Federacio
Clarence Bicknell – Floral Fantasies at the Fitzwilliam, Cambridge2018 – exhibition announcement
Clarence Bicknell – Floral Fantasies at the Fitzwilliam, Cambridge2018 – notes on the exhibits (incl. Walter Crane)
Clarence Bicknell – Genoa presentation and film projection 20162016 – press release, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale
Clarence Bicknell – Geologist2024 – Luca Barale
Clarence Bicknell – Herne Hill Art Set and Denning2014 – Brian Green
Clarence Bicknell – Herbarium in Bordighera – abstract in MS Word1981 – Enrico Martini – Università di Genova
Clarence Bicknell – Herbarium in Bordighera – pdf in italiano1981 – Enrico Martini – Università di Genova
Clarence Bicknell – Il primo sguardo su Bordighera – in italiano2019 – Gisella Merello
Clarence Bicknell – in Private – presented in Bordighera2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – in Private – poster2019 – colour poster
Clarence Bicknell – My Dialogue in the garden, English e italiano2018 – Andrea Guerzoni
Clarence Bicknell – Iridomyrmex bicknelli (1898)2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – John Goodchild and the Blue Bowl2018 – Renchi Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Kew Gardens2016 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Knitting, World War I, and Bordighera2018 – Helen Blanc-Francard & Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – La Vita e le Opere in italiano2016 – Bruna de Paoli, Daniela Gandolfi
Clarence Bicknell – Les Merveilles, Alpidoc 812019 – Jean-Loup Fontana
Clarence Bicknell – L’Homme – en français1998 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Lo Stupore della Riviera (Artista) in italiano2018 – Marcus Bicknell (one paper in both English and Italian)
Clarence Bicknell – MacDonald, George. Introduction2015 – Susie Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – MacDonald, George in Bordighera. Complete2019 – Susie Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – MacDonald, Louisa, letters at Yale – transcripts2017 – Valerie Lester
Clarence Bicknell – MacDonald, Louisa, letters at Yale – photos2017 – via Valerie Lester
Clarence Bicknell – MARVELS, the biography. See MARVELS2018 – Valerie Lester. Listed under MARVELS below
Clarence Bicknell – Merveilles,  en français 367kb in English 4,505kb1988 – Louis Barral and Suzanne Simone, Monaco
Clarence Bicknell – exhibition Musée des Merveilles, Tende2018 – colour poster
Clarence Bicknell – Moggridge and Moggridge2016 – Graham Avery and Marcus Bicknell ***
Clarence Bicknell – Mountain Botanist, “Les Botanistes aux Sommets” – Text in English pdf – Text in French – Slides in English – Slides in French – Slides in Italian2022 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – nell’anno del centenario 2018 in italiano2018 – Daniela Gandolfi
Clarence Bicknell – Nice presentation and film projection 20182018 – colour poster
Clarence Bicknell – obituary in the Esperantist magazine1918 – anon
Clarence Bicknell – Parma presentation and film projection 20182018 – colour poster
Clarence Bicknell – Pelloux, Alberto, letters1970 – Bernardini, 2016 – M Bicknell, summary
Clarence Bicknell – Person of Ideas2014 – Humphrey Tonkin, for the Twilight Club, Hertford, CT
Clarence Bicknell – Petroglyph Engravings in the 21st Century2017 – Christine Kulper
Clarence Bicknell – Pimpinella bicknellii2017 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Poems in Esperanto (up to 1918)2013 – collated by Paul Gubbins
Clarence Bicknell – Right Brain. Left Brain2016 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Sir Thomas Hanbury. Their relationship.2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Sir Thomas Hanbury. Conference report2019 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Sommier, Stefano, letters “Caro Dottore”2017 – Graham Avery
Clarence Bicknell – Lo Stupore della Riviera (Artista) in italiano2018 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Lo Stupore della Riviera (Artista) in italiano2018 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – The Marvels of Clarence Bicknell, film FAQs2016 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – The Marvels of Clarence Bicknell, en français2016 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – The Marvels of Clarence Bicknell, screenplay2016 – Marcus Bicknell – text of the film in full
Clarence Bicknell – The Marvels of Clarence Bicknell, Renchi Go2016 – Marcus Bicknell. Notes on the shooting of the film.
Clarence Bicknell – Una Vita Sacra: Discovery of Rock Art1985 – Christopher Chippindale
Clarence Bicknell – Willmott, Ellen, letters, Boccanegra2016 – Susie Bicknell (see also Hanbury newsletter 2017)
  
Corbet, Rowland William – Clarence Bicknell2015 – Valerie Browne Lester
Correvon, Henry, Casa Fontanalba 19142022 Graham Avery
De Burgh Daly, H. – earthquake fund-raising letter1887 – Teesdale Mercury newspaper
Faire parler les pierres; la Vallée des Merveilles, 1868-19132016 – Maddalena Cataldi
Famiglia Reale Britannica in Bordighera, Strathmore &c.  in italiano2019 – Gisella Merello (in English, “British Royal…” above)
Farrer, Reginald, and Clarence Bicknell2011 – Graham Avery (updated 2022)
Farrer, Reginald, in the Alps2022 – Graham Avery
Ferguson, John, letter from Bicknell (1911)2014 – transcribed by Marcus Bicknell
Foreigners on the Riviera – Margaret Berry et al.  in italiano2014 – Daniela Gandolfi
Fox, Aileen, at Fontanalba (1927-8)2015 – Graham Avery
French Botanists at Casa Fontanalba in 19102022 – Graham Avery
Giuseppe Piana theatre screen restoration 20202020 – Marcus Bicknell
Hanbury Gardens, Bicknell and the cultural impact2019 – Elena Grafova, Likhatchev Research Institute, Moscow
Hanbury Gardens and Clarence Bicknell2016 – Graham Avery
Hanbury Gardens newsletter December 20172017 – includes article by Susie Bicknell on Ellen Willmott
Iridomyrmex bicknelli and Clarence Bicknell (1898)2016 – Graham Avery
John Goodchild and the Blue Bowl – Clarence Bicknell2018 – Renchi Bicknell
Kew Gardens – Clarence Bicknell2016 – Graham Avery
Keyhole Figures of the Vallée des Merveilles (en français – in English)2019 – Jules Masson Mourey
Lear, Edward – Fun on the Riviera2012 – Michael Nelson
Lester, Valerie – obituary2019 – Marcus Bicknell
MacDonald, George – a literary figure in Bordighera. Intro2015 – Susie Bicknell – short version
MacDonald, George, and Clarence Bicknell in Bordighera.2019 – Susie Bicknell – complete version
Mader, Fritz & Clarence Bicknell – ‘Egregio Signore’2020 – Graham Avery
Mader, Fritz – Pioneer of Natural History2022 – Graham Avery
Marcenaro – Bordighera and Clarence Bicknell (1998, in French)2017 – translation by J-L Fontana
Martini, Enrico – Bicknell Herbarium, Bordighera 1981 – Enrico Martini – Università di Genova
Martini, Enrico – Bicknell Herbarium, Bordighera – pdf  (in italiano)1981 – Enrico Martini – Università di Genova
MARVELS – the index of Valerie Lester’s 2018 biography, pdf2018 – Valerie Lester
MARVELS – the index of Valerie Lester’s 2018 biography, MS Word2018 – Valerie Lester
MARVELS – prologue and contents of Valerie Lester’s 2018 biography of Clarence Bicknell2018 – Valerie Lester (including titles, contents and family tree)
MARVELS – chapter 1 of Valerie Lester’s 2018 biography2018 – Valerie Lester (Herne Hill)
MARVELS – chapter 10 of Valerie Lester’s 2018 biography – The Rock Engravings2018 – Valerie Lester (The Rock Engravings)
MARVELS – end notes, acknowledgements, bibliography, index2018 – Valerie Lester
MARVELS – review in Antiquity – Alpine Rock Art2019 – Christopher Chippindale
MARVELS – review in Huntia (Carnegie Mellon, Pittsburg)2019 – Charlotte Tancin
MARVELS – Country Life review 20182018 – Helena Attlee
MARVELS – Venue review 20182018 – Venue editorial staff
Clarence Bicknell – Moggridge and Moggridge2016 – Graham Avery and Marcus Bicknell
Museo Bicknell – research, letters, Valerie’s papers2015 – Valerie Lester
Museo Bicknell – research, letters, in Ligures 2014-20152015 – Valerie Lester
Oxford Herbaria and Clarence Bicknell2014 – Graham Avery
Palm trees and agrarian landscape in the Western Riviera of Liguria2017 – Pietro Piana (summary of study, English & Italian)
Pieds Bots – gravures rupestres (en français)2017 – Jules Masson-Mourey
Plantes Alimentaires de la Vallée de la Roya1983 – Danielle Musset
Pollini, Luigi – info on birth and death2020 – Marcus Bicknell, Elisabetta Massardo
Prayers in Stone – The rock engravings of the Vallée des Merveilles2004 – Johanna Merz
Rock carvings of the Merveilles   en français 367kb  in English1988 – Louis Barral and Suzanne Simone, Monaco
Saxifraga florulenta – The Ancient King2021 – Elisabetta Massardo
Sommier, Stefano, letters “Caro Dottore”2017 – Graham Avery
Stranieri in  Riviera – Margaret Berry et al.  in italiano2014 – Daniela Gandolfi
Tasmanian Ant, Iridomyrmex bicknelli (1898)2016 – Graham Avery
Taube, Baroness von, letters from Clarence Bicknell  in pdf Excel2016 – transcribed by Susie and Marcus Bicknell
The Turner Collector: Elhanan Bicknell (in pdf)1987 – Peter Bicknell with Helen Guiterman
Willmott, Ellen, Hanbury Gardens newsletter2017 – Susie Bicknell
Willmott, Ellen, Letters from Clarence Bicknell, Boccanegra2016 – Susie Bicknell
 
Documents en Français
Clarence Bicknell – Entre paysage et botanique2019 – Raffaella Bruzzone, Robert Hearn et Pietro Piana
Clarence Bicknell – L’Homme   en français1998 – Marcus Bicknell
Association Clarence Bicknell – statuts 2013
Marcenaro – Bordighera et Clarence Bicknell1998 – translation J-L Fontana 2017
Pieds Bots – gravures rupestres (en français)2017 – Jules Masson-Mourey
Keyhole Figures of the Vallée des Merveilles (en français, and in English)2019 – Jules Masson-Mourey – 2 languages in 1 document
  
Documenti in italiano 
Berry, Edward (in Italiano)2020 – Gisella Merello
Bordighera – L’atmosfera cosmopolita a fine Ottocento2019 – Gisella Merello
100 anni di Clarence Bicknell (in Italiano)2019 – Bruno Gallino
Clarence Bicknell, botanico e citizen scientist.2019 – Prof. Mauro Mariotti (in Italian and English)
Clarence Bicknell – Filantrope ed Esperantista in italiano2013 – Humphrey Tonkin, Revuo de Itala Esperanto-Federacio
Clarence Bicknell – Herbarium in Bordighera – pdf in italiano1981 – Enrico Martini – Università di Genova
Clarence Bicknell – La Vita e le Opere in italiano2016 – Bruna de Paoli, Daniela Gandolfi
Clarence Bicknell – Lo Stupore della Riviera (Artista) in italiano2016 – Marcus Bicknell
Clarence Bicknell – Centenary Year 2018, in italiano2018 – Dssa. Daniela Gandolfi
Famiglia Reale Britannica in Bordighera, Strathmore &c.2019 – Gisella Merello (in Italian and English)
Lettere Clarence Bicknell a Abate Carestia1903 – Clarence Bicknell
Palme e paesaggio agrario nella Riviera di Ponente2017 – Pietro Piana 2017
Parco naturale del Marguareis, Stazione botanica Burnat/Bicknell2017 – from their website
Saxifraga florulenta – The Ancient King2021 – Elisabetta Massardo
Stranieri in  Riviera – Margaret Berry et al.  in italiano2014 – Daniela Gandolfi
  

Clarence Bicknell Association downloads

In English

Clarence Bicknell Association statutes (2013 revised 2020)

Clarence Bicknell Association annual accounts            2015   2016   2017   2018  2019   2020  2021  2022

Clarence Bicknell Association AGM Minutes    2014   2015  2018  2020  2022

Clarence Bicknell Association leaflet (2014)

Clarence Bicknell Association mission statement and objectives

Clarence Bicknell Association Newsletter 1 – autumn 2014 (some material in French and Italian)

Clarence Bicknell Association Newsletter 2 – autumn 2015

Clarence Bicknell Association Newsletter 3 – autumn 2016

Clarence Bicknell Association committee members’ biographies

Clarence Bicknell 2018 Centenary Fund – appeal for donations

Clarence Bicknell 2018 Exhibition Plan

Valerie Lester biography

Sally Salvesen biography

En français – In French
Association Clarence Bicknell – statuts
En cas de differences, la version anglaise serait prise en compte.

In Italiano – In Italian
Clarence Bicknell 2018 Centenary Fund – appeal for donations
La campagna di raccolti fondi Clarence Bicknell 2018 – Richiesta di finanziamento
100 anni di Clarence Bicknell – Alpidoc
Berry, Edward (in Italiano) 2020 – Gisella Merello

Notes on this Documents page from the web site’s editor Marcus Bicknell

An objective of this site and of the Clarence Bicknell Association is to encourage research into Clarence Bicknell and the period by pooling available documents and research activity. Research into Clarence Bicknell is addressed on this site; click here. The download list on Marcus Bicknell’s web site at marcusbicknell.co.uk/clarence/ was replaced by this page in 2013 and has been taken offline.

The names of Clarence’s visitors in the “Casa Fontanalba Visitors’ Book” are transcribed into MS Excel here, along with those listed and illustrated in his “Book of Guests in Esperanto” on the second tab (bottom of the Excel sheet). This list of names was updated 22 March 2013 with people identified in Clarence’s “Flowering Plants and Ferns of the Riviera” and “A Guide to the Prehistoric Rock Engravings in the Italian Maritime Alps”.

Graham Avery, researching into the work of botanist Reginald Farrer, came across his name in Clarence’s visitors’ book. The resulting article is a fascinating cameo of the lives of Farrer and Bicknell when they met at the Casa Fontanalba, and what the undercurrent was when they did so. It can be downloaded  here .   He has visited the Oxford Herbaria and reported on Clarence’s pressed flowers there: “Oxford Herbaria and Clarence Bicknell” can be downloaded here.    Among the several papers written by Graham, for which we and scholars thank him, is a piece on Aileen Fox the archaeologist who visited the Casa Fontanalba in 1927 and 1928. She left an interesting account of her experience in her autobiography Aileen – A Pioneering Archaeologist (Gracewing, Leominster UK, 2000). Read Graham’s article here.

The grand-daughter of Elizabeth B. and James Churchman, who signed Clarence’s visitors book on 22nd July 1906, among the first visitors, found their names on this site and contacted us with more information about them. Download a one page pdf  here

I am delighted at these various pieces of research as they justify, for me, the effort of transcribing the hand-written documents onto the internet.